Vocabulary unit 4

Law and justice: adjectives:

Guilty: culpable
Innocent: inocent

Law and justice: nouns:

Court: tribunal
Crime: delicte
Criminal: criminal
Detective: detectiu
Evidence: evidència/proves
Judge: jutge
Jury: jurat
Justice: justícia
Law: llei
Lawyer: advocat
Police officer: policia
Prison: presó
Punishment: sanció
Sentence: sentència
Suspect: sospitós
Victim: víctima
Witness: testimoni

Law and justice: verbs:

Arrest: arrest
Commit (a crime): cometre un delicte
Investigate: investigar
Prove: demostrar

Compound nouns:

Bus stop: parada d'autobús
Community service: servei a la comunitat
Defence lawyer: advocat defensor
Detective series: sèries de detectius
Exam result: resultat dels exàmens
Football team: equip de futbol
Police car: cotxe de policia
School building: edifici de l'escola
Summer holiday: vacances d'estiu
Traffic lights: semàfors

Crimes and criminals:

Burglar: lladre
Burglary: robatori
Burgle: robar
Kidnap: segrestar
Kidnapper: segrestador
Kidnapping: segrest
Mug: atracar
Mugger: atracador
Mugging: atracament
Murder (noun): assassinat
Murder (verb): assassinar
Murderer: assassí
Rob: robar
Robber: lladre
Robbery: robatori
Shoplift: robar en una botiga
Shoplifter: lladre que roba en una botiga
Shoplifting: robatori en una botiga
Steal: robar
Theft: robatori
Thief: lladre
Vandal: vandal
Vandalism: vandalisme
Vandalize: destrossar

Other words:

Disappointment: decepció
Clever: intel.ligent
So-called: en qüestió
Command: ordre
Request: petició
Ask: demanar
Advise: aconsellar
Remind: recordar
Encourage: animar
Warn: avisar
Agree: acordar
Offer: oferir
Promise: prometre
Refuse: rebutjar
Reply: contestar
Reveal: revelar
Add: afegir

Reporting verbs

We can use many different verbs to introduce reported speech. They take the following patterns:

Verb + object + infinitive (with to). These are usually the verbs we use in reported commands and requests, when one person asks another to do something. They include: ask, advise, invite, order, remind, tell, ecourage, persuade, warn.

• "Whatever you do, don't touch the gun!" : He warned me not to touch the gun.

Verb + infinitive (with to). These verbs include: agree, offer, promise, refuse.

• "I'll drive you to the police station." : He offered to drive me to the police station.

Verb (+ that) + subject + verb in reporting tense. These verbs include: admit, declare, explain, insist, promise, recommend, reply, reveal, say, suggest, add. In informal language, we can usually omit that.

• "Why don't you get a burglar alarm." : She suggested ( that) we got a burglar alarm.

Verb + for + -ing: apologize for.

• "I'm sorry I was rude." : She apologized for being rude.

REMEMBER!

The reporting verbs say and tell have the same meaning, but their use is different:

Say (+ that) + reported speech.

• The police officer said (that) they had found the vandals.

Tell + indirect object (+ that) + reported speech.

• The police officer told me that they had found the vandals.

Reported questions

Reported questions have a different word order from direct questions. They use the same word order as affirmative sentences:

Verb + subject (direct question) : subject + verb (reported question).

• "What's your name?" he asked. : He asked (her) what her name was.

We do not use do/did/does in reported questions.

• "Do you recognize the suspect?" : They asked if she recognized the suspect.

If a direct question uses question words ( for example who, why, when, how, what) we repeat the question word in the reported question.

• "When will you finish the book?" : He asked (her) when she would finisk the book.

If a direct question does not use question words (who, why, when, how, what), we use if or whether in the reported question.

• "Can I see your driving licence?" : The detective asked him if/whether she could see his driving licence.

REMEMBER!

We do not use question marks (?) in reported speech.

• "What are you doing?" : They asked us what we were doing.

Reported commands and request

In direct speech, we use the imperative to give commands an make requests. When this is changed to reported speech, we use the following structures:

Commands: tell + object + infinitive (with to).

• "Watch the door!" : The lawyer told the court to watch the door.

Requests: ask + object + infinitive (with to).

• "Please can you explain?" : The lawyer asked the judge to explain.

If we want to make a negative command or request in reported speech, we put not before the infinitive (with to):

Subject + verb + object + not + infinitive (with to).

• "Don't touch anything!" : The detective told us not to touch anything.

• "Please don't send my client to prison." : The lawyer asked the judge not to send his client to prison.

There are other verbs that we can use to give commands and make requests in reported speech. For example: advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn.

• "You should tell the police" : My friend advised me to tell the police.

Reported statements: other changes

When we convert direct speech into reported speech:

Most modal verbs (for example, should, could, would, might, ought to) do not change.

• "You should report the theft." : She said that I should report the theft.

Pronouns usually change.

• "I'm watching you." : He said that he was watching me.

Expressions of time and place usually change.

DIRECT SPEECH.............REPORTED SPEECH
Here....................................There
This.....................................That
These..................................Those
Now.....................................Then
Next week............................The following week
Today..................................That day
Tonight.................................That night
Tomorrow............................The following day
Yesterday............................The day before
Last week............................The week before

Reported statements: tense changes

When we convert direct speech into reported speech, we change the tense of the main verb by putting it one step further into the past.

DIRECT SPEECH...............REPORTED SPEECH
Present simple......................Past simple
Present continuous...............Past continuous
Present prefect simple..........Past perfect simple
Past simple............................Past perfect simple
Will.........................................Would
Can.........................................Could
Must.......................................Had to


REMEMBER!

We don't change the past perfect simple in reported speech.

• "He had to leave." : She said that he had to leave.

Reported speech

We use reported speech to report what another person has said, without quoting their exact words.

Direct speech : reported speech

• "I'm a witness to a crime." : He said that he was a witness to a crime.

In formal language, we use that to begin the clause that contains the reported speech. In informal language, we can omit that.

• "I'm going to call the police," said the man. : The man said (that) he was going to call the police.

Remember that we don't use inverted commas ("...") in reported speech.

• "There has been a burglary," said the police officer. : The police officer said (that) there had been a burglary.

Vocabulary unit 3

Travel and adventure:

Book: reservar
Catch (a plane): agafar (un avió)
Explore: explorar
Go (swimming): anar a (nedar)
Go on an adventure: tenir una aventura
Go on holiday: anar de vacances
Hire: alquilar
Spend (a day): passar (un dia)
Sunbathe: prendre el sol
Take a trip: fer un viatge
Take a photograph: fer una fotografia

Travel and adventure: nouns:

Bungee jump: salt de pont
Crevasse: creuer
Desert: desert
Sunburn: cremada del sol
Suntan: bronzejat
Survival: supervivència
Travel agent: agència de viatges

Linkers of contrast:

In spite of: a pesar de
Despite: a pesar de
Although: encara que
Though: encara que
Despite the fact that: a pesar de que
In spite of the fact that: a pesar de que

Linkers of purpose and reason:

In order to: per tal de
So as to: per tal de
To: per tal de
So (that): per tal de
As: perquè
Because: perquè
Since: perquè
Because of: a causa de

Linkers of result:

So....that: tant....SN....que
Such....that: tant.....Adj......que

Adverbs:

Amazingly:sorprenentment
Unfortunately: per desgràcia
Luckily: per sort
Really: realment/en realitat
Extremely: extremadament
Very: molt
Patiently: amb paciència
Quickly: ràpidament
Desperately: desesperadament

Other words:

Times goes by: el temps pasa
Time flies: el temps vola
Compass: brúixola
Junkies: adictes
Skydiving: ala delta
Challenge: repte
Reef: coral
Set up: engegar
Breath: alineto
Arrived in: arribar a (una ciutat)
Arrived at: arribar a (un lloc)
Youth hostel: albergue

Linkers of result

We can use the following linkers to talk about the result or effect of something:

So + adjective + that clause.

• It's so cold today that I had to borrow a snow coat.

So + adverb + that clause.

• Sometimes the temperature falls so quickly that my breath freezes instantly.

Such + a (n) + adjective + singular noun + that clause.

• It's such a beautiful country that I'd like to stay till Christmas.

Such + adjective + uncountable noun + that clause.

• It has such bad weather that it's often too dangerous to go out.

Linkers of purpose and reason

We can use the following linkers to talk about the purpose of an action:

• To/in order (not) to/so as (not) to + infinitive.

I hired a car to tour the island.
I started the website in order to save money.
He went to Alaska so as to experience something new.
He left early in order not to miss his flight home.

• So/so that + clause. We often omit the word that in informal or spoken English. We often use these linkers with can/can't/could/will/won't/wouldn't.

I'd love to go to Alaska so I can have a white Christmas!
He took a notebook so that he could write about his holiday.


We can use the following linkers to talk about the reason for an action or event:

• As/because/since + clause.

As the flight was cancelled, we stayed an extra night.
James started the website because he wanted to travel.
Since the weather was bad, we spent the day at the hotel.

• Because of + noun/noun phrase.

He couldn't go jet-skiing because of the bad weather.

Linkers of contrast

We can use the following linkers to express a contrast:

Although/though + clause. Although and though have the same meaning, but though is more common in informal English.

• So far James has visited five countries, although he has only spent tne euros!
• Though the website started recently, James has had lots of offers.

Despite the fact that/in spite of the fact that + clause.

• We bought the tickets despite the fact that they were expensive.
• In spite of the fact that he has very little money, James has travelled a lot.
  

Despite/in spite of + noun/pronoun or gerund.

• In spite of all the discount offered by travel agents, going on holiday can still be expensive.
• Despite having little money James Beck has found a way to travel the world for free!

Complex clauses

A complex clause gives us extra information about a sentence. It is introduced by a linking word or phrase. These words and phrases are also known as "linkers".
Complex clauses can express a range of meanings depending on the linker that is used. For example:

• Contrast. Linkers include: although, though, in spite or the fact that, despite the fact that
• Purpose. Linkers include: so (that)
• Reason. Linkers include: because, as, since
• Result. Linkers include: so...that, such...that

REMEMBER!

When a complex clause begins a sentence, we use a comma to separate the two clauses:

• Although he was scared, he still did the bungee jump.